LOG503 Managing Logistics Operations (MOD 2) SLP Essay

LOG503 Managing Logistics Operations (MOD 2) SLP - Essay Example The logistical system of Wal-mart must work flawlessly so as to be able to manage such a big store. Wal-mart has a distribution system that distributes nearly 85 percent of the total wares sold in its own stores (Atchmeyer, 2002). Wal-mart’s major aim is to sell its goods at the lowest price possible (Atchmeyer, 2002; Mohan, 2003). To achieve this, Wal-Mart obtains goods directly from the manufacturers and sells them directly to its retail customers bypassing all intermediaries (Mohan, 2003). Thus Wal-mart has its own distribution centers strategically located at different locations all over the US. The strategy employed here is that one distribution store can serve 150-200 stores (Atchmeyer, 2002). This has made sure that the stores no matter how far they are are within one day’s driving distance (Atchmeyer, 2002). The distribution centres operate 24 hours a day because the conveyer belts are laser-guided (Atchmeyer, 2002). An advanced opportunistic cross-docking procedure is in use; as the goods are picked directly from the manufacturer’s premises and directly taken to the retail consumers. This ensures that the systems are very efficient as well as they do not need to store the material (Atchmeyer, 2002). It is basically from the stores directly to the shelves. The company owns a fleet of over 12,000 trailers 3,000 trucks (Mohan, 2003). In contrast to its competitors who subcontract the trucking services (Magretta, 2002). Additionally, the company is quite meticulous in hiring its drivers. For a driver to qualify to work for Wal-Mart, they got to have a track record of over 300,000 accident free miles without any major traffic violations (Mohan, 2003). Wal-Mart has developed a number of methods to individually deal with each of its stores inventory (Magretta, 2002). The solutions are tailor made for each individual store in order to cover the logistical challenges posed. These measures

Social Development Theory Essay Example for Free

Social Development Theory Essay As a parent, I would agree more with Vygotsky’s theory concerning child development rather than Paiget’s. Though children do progress at different rates, I believe that they are capable of more learning at an early age than Piaget’s theory allows. Piaget also states that learning should supersede social development in all cases while Vygotsky’s theory allows for social development to be as important and in some cases more important than intellectual learning. While a child may be extremely intelligent, it will be difficult for them to function in society without having a strong foundation socially. Much of our society is based on social interactions and how well we as people handle ourselves in certain situations. A child who is not properly socialized will have a very difficult time knowing how to deal with their peers in a social situation. To ensure that my child has a very balanced background both intellectually and socially, I would first make sure that they attend school in a traditional setting, whether in a public or private school. Children need to learn, but they also need the company of other children and to be able to consult their peers concerning a shared experience. It is important for children to share in social activities as well as to be able to experience different things from each other and with other children. Another exercise would be to encourage my child to participate in a cultural activity such as dance classes, martial arts, or playing an instrument where they can receive personalized and community education, as well as team activity, such as a local sport. This would give the child a shared experience as well as a productive outlet to channel their energies and a positive adult role model outside of the family unit. Children should be socialized not only with other children but also with adults in a structured, formal setting that allows them to have a positive relationship with both adults and children socially. Works Cited Santrock, J. W. (2007). A Topical Approach to Lifespan Development, 3rd Edition. Dallas: McGraw-Hill.

Organisational Risk Management in Project Management

Organisational Risk Management in Project Management CHAPTER 2 2.1 Preview This chapter provides the reader about the theory and rationale behind the use of Organisational Risk Analysis (ORA) on project management and its methodologies available in the market. It will also cover the work of different authors to afford better understanding of the subjected area i.e. Project management, Risk analysis and Organisational risk analysis. The source of information of this literature review is mainly from books, journals and white papers. 2.2 Introduction Through this literature review one can know what others understanding about this study i.e. nothing but historical perspectives. First part of the literature focuses on project management and risk analysis and risk analysis types, second part of this literature focuses on Organisational Risk Analysis (ORA) and Role of ORA in Project management. It mainly concentrates on Project management, risk analysis and organisational risk analysis. 2.3 Introduction to Project Management: PMBOK (Project Management Body of Knowledge as defined by the Project Management Institute — PMI):Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements. (PMI 2004) According to James P. Lewis â€Å"The Project management is facilitating the planning, scheduling and controlling of all activities that must be done to achieve project objectives† (James P. Lewis: 2007) PRINCE 2 project management methodology: The planning, monitoring and control of all aspects of the project and the motivation of all those involved in it to achieve the project objectives on time and to the specified cost, quality and performance. A project is usually one time activity with a well defined set of desired and results. It can be divided into subtasks that must be accomplished in order to achieve the project goals. In this day and age also it is assumed that project management can be enhanced by scientific methods. There is a very strong reason why these beliefs are created, it all accounts to the fact that todays modern world has given professionals numerous amount of opportunities to execute their projects successfully. Such are the kind of investment options that are given to project investors. They are briefed with all the minute details so that they feel that their investment is secure. They also make sure that the estimated time of completion and the end can be calculated at the beginning of the project itself. The decisions that are taken on a technical basis or which are taken looking at the low opportunity costs that it presents are reversible in nature. The demand for resources can also be calculated once the initial parameters such as the duration and time frame of the project are estimated. Due to the advancement in technology even the most terrible consequences can be predicted. à ¢â‚¬Å"The failure of the project was due to the lack of skills rather than an inappropriate feasibility, suitability or acceptability of the solution. This is a normal–science view of project management.† (Charette and Robert, 1996) The projection of ideas and activities into new accomplishments are one of the common characteristics of all projects. There are many different definitions of what constitutes project management such as â€Å"An unique set of co-ordinated activities, with definite starting and finishing points, undertaken by an individual or a team to meet specific objectives within a definite period of time, cost and performance parameters† (Office of Government Commerce). (Web4, 2009) J. Pinto and Prescott (1990) stated, â€Å"Researchers in project management need to first and most importantly offer a comprehensive, inclusive, and clear definition of project success before attempting to undertake studies of the project implementation process†. (J.Pinto and Prescott, 1990) The modern project management started in 1950s, before this period projects were executed in an unplanned manner and the methods and tools used for execution were not professional in nature. The importance of project management is a very important topic because all organisations i.e. either be they are small or large organisations, those are involved in implementing new accomplishments. These accomplishments may be diverse, such as, the improvement of an innovative product, introducing a new range of products in a manufacturing base, a promotional advertisement or a major construction project. In the 1980s the focus was more on the quality of work. Globalisation played a huge role in the 1990s as we were trying to improve our economy, the 2000s saw projects with decreased time frames. A new field known as project management was developing from all new areas of application which included construction, engineering, telecommunications, and defence. This emerging field has now become an important part of our economy as it has produced a string of fabulous results. Hence it is now being applied by the corporate world as well as the government. Duncan Haughey (2008) explained some main definitions of what project management is: â€Å"Project management is not a continuous process. It has a definite beginning and end.† â€Å"Project management uses various tools to measure accomplishments and track project tasks. These include Work Breakdown Structures, Gantt charts and PERT charts.† â€Å"Projects frequently need resources on an ad-hoc basis as opposed to organisations that have only dedicated full-time positions.† â€Å"Project management reduces risk and increases the chance of success.† â€Å"Successful project management is delivering your projects on time, to brief and within budget.† (Duncan Haughy, 2008) 2.3.1 Methodology of Project Management: According to Bradley (2002) Project management methodology means â€Å"Project Management Methodology focuses on the project and can be in any industry and any type of projects ranging from construction to aerospace industries and from projects of Financial to IT in nature, it encompasses all projects† The above diagram shows the main components of one of the main project management methodology. Some of the elements like project start-up and project closure occur only once. The remaining elements like planning, managing and controlling, form an interactive cycle that may repeat many times before the completion of the project. In other words we can also say project management is the discipline of planning, organising and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific projects goals and objectives. Each and every project is different in nature. Any project would involve a certain amount of risk and hence require perfect planning and execution if they have to succeed. The main aim of project management is to predict any complications or problems in the project well before hand so that when the project plan is made all these factors can also be taken into consideration and hence the chances of the project being completed successfully would be much higher. Almost every project we do in todays business world involve a risk of some kind: change in customer needs, unrealistic time scales, inappropriate staff, poor project specifications , failure to manage user expectations could delay the project. Projects need to be performed and delivered under certain constraints. Traditionally these constraints have been listed as scope, time and quality. This is also called as ‘project management triangle. One side of the triangle cannot be changed without affecting others. The time constraint refers to the amount of time available to complete a project, scope refers to what must be done to produce the projects end result and cost refers to the budgeted amount available for the project. Increasing Scope ( Increasing Time + Increasing Cost Decreasing Time ( Increasing Cost + Reducing Scope Tight Budget ( Increase Time + Reducing Scope. If we modify any of the factors, the other two has to be changed, if not the risk may appear high. But formal risk analysis and risk management can help you to assess these risks and decide what action to take to minimize disruptions to your project plans. According to J. Davidson Frame (2007) the basic outline of project management is described below Project managers bear ultimate responsibility for making things happen. Traditionally, they have carried out this role as mere implementers. To do their jobs they needed to have basic administrative and technical competencies. Today they play a far broader role. In addition to the traditional skills, they need to have business skills, customer relations skills, and political skills. Psychologically, they must be results-oriented self-starters with a high tolerance for ambiguity, because little is clear-cut in todays tumultuous business environment. Shortcomings in any of these areas can lead to project failure. – (J. Davidson Frame, 2007) Project management is discipline that applies to any project; every company has their own way of doing their projects. The project management is not very easy it is totally a leadership position and with technical talent it cannot be done. Project manager without enough experience cannot hold for a long-time on the same project if the assumption of the company goes wrong in selecting the project manager it will be in risk. (Sanjay Murthi, Preventive Risk Management for Software Projects) 2.4 Risk Analysis: The word ‘RISK derives from the early Italian risicare, which means ‘TO DARE. (Websters Dictionary: 1989) One of the most important activities in project management is to identify and manage the uncertainties and problems during the project tenure. When dealing with research and development projects it must be made note of that the number of events present are very high which could alter the course of the project The amount of risk involved in the project would mainly depend on the size of the project. The contractors of the project are the people who deal with the risks of the project, their main duties would involve to identify risks. Then they study them and find as solution so that could remove or minimize them. Apart form this they should also have a clear understanding of the different types of risk involved and ways as to how they can be managed and projects can be completed in a risk free manner. (The Owners Role in Project Risk Management National Research Council (U.S.A). Committee for Oversight and Assessment of U.S. the national academic press, Washington DC). A report that shows assets, vulnerabilities, likelihood of damage, estimates of the costs of recovery, summaries of possible defensive measures and their costs and estimated probable savings from better protection. A risk analysis is the process of assessing the level of risk involved, this is also known as a threat and risk assessment. A threat is a harmful act such as the deployment of a virus or illegal network penetration. A risk is the expectation that a threat may succeed and the potential damage that can occur. (Web1, 2009) Risk analysis allows you to examine the risks that your organization faces. It is the process of systematically identifying and assessing the potential risks and uncertainties that occur when trying to achieve a certain goal (like reaching a target income or finishing a project), and then finding a feasible strategy for most efficiently controlling those risks. ‘The systematic process to understand the nature of and to deduce the level of risk. It provides the basis for risk evaluation and decisions about risk treatment. (AS/NZS 4360:2004 (p. 4). According to Michael R. Greenberg †Risk Analysis ranked among the top 10 journals in the ISI Journal Citation Reports under the social sciences, mathematical methods category is designed to meet the need for organization, integration, and communication and provide a focal point for new developments in the field.† (Michael R. Greenberg: 2008) Evidence from the literature suggests that project managers perform risk analysis because somebody else, e.g. their client, the parent company or the Government, has demanded it (Boothroyd, 1996; Smith, 1998). The analysis of risk is being increasingly viewed as a field in itself, and the demand for a more orderly and formal treatment of risk is great. This international journal is committed to publishing critical empirical research, conference proceedings, and commentaries dealing with risk issues. In other terms we can say the measure of risk can be determined as a product of threat, vulnerability and asset value in an organisation. Risk = Asset * Threat * Vulnerability. Risk analysis may play an important role in cost- benefit studies, which compare the costs of a particular action or project against its potential benefits. It is a systematic study of uncertainties and risks we encounter in business, engineering and many other areas. Risk analysts seek to identify the risks faced by an organization or a business unit, understand how and when they arise, and estimate the impact of adverse outcomes. Techniques used in risk analysis include sensitivity analysis, probability analysis, simulation and modeling. Risk analysis may be used to develop an organizational risk profile, and also may be the first stage in risk management program. Risk analysis may be undertaken to varying degrees of detail depending upon the risk, the purpose of the analysis, and the information, data and resources available. In todays world where competition has become global, it is very important that firms control the different kinds of risk that they are dealing with as it has become an essential part in achieving corporate success. The people who are involved such as customers, investors and others asking companies for complete transparency on their investments. Thus risk analysis is necessary to protect an organisations competitive position. Most industries are particularly plagued by risks, but it has been slow in realising the potential benefits of sound and systematic risk management (Al-Bahar and Crandall, 1990; Ward et. al. 1991; Thomson and Perry, 1992; Flanagan and Norman, 1993; Raftery, 1994; Fellows, 1996; Edward and Bowen, 1998).While coming for the software industries risk analysis and management are a sequential progression that help in guiding a software team in understanding and managing risks. A risk is a potential problem, it might happen, it might not. But regardless of the outcome it is really good idea to identify it, assess its probability of occurrence, estimate the impact and establish a contingency plan should the problem actually occurs. According to Bernstein â€Å"the mystery of risk is a critical step in the development of modern society. One can discuss the validity of his conclusion, but there should be no doubt that risk and uncertainty are important concepts to address for supporting decision-making in many situations†. This Risk Analysis may be qualitative, semi-qualitative or quantitative or a combination of these three, depending on the circumstances. The criticality of risk analysis doesnt wholly depend on identifying the risk factors. It also depends on categorizing them according to their threat level. So let us see how the whole concept of risk analysis starts. There are two types of risk analysis. Both these methods are very important in the assessment of risk and can be executed in any order. It is very important to understand the difference between these two risks as there is a very thin line separating them. Those are: Quantitative Risk Analysis Qualitative Risk Analysis (Identification of types of risk analysis) 2.5. Quantitative Risk Analysis: Quantitative Risk Analysis has become an important component of project management. Quantitative risk analysis attempts to assign independently objective monetary values to the components of the risk assessment and to the assessment of the potential loss. According to Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK  ® Guide, Third edition 2004, Project Management Institute) â€Å"Quantitative Risk Analysis is performed on risks that have been prioritized by the Qualitative Risk Analysis process as potentially and substantially impacting project ‘s completing demands. The Quantitative Risk Analysis process analyzes the effect of those risk events and assigns a numerical rating to those risks.† (PMBOK Guide, 2004) This method gives the project manager a foresight as to how the project would progress if risks associated with it would occur. Hence due to this method the project mangers are able to counter these risks and also account to better execution of projects. A quantitative risk analysis offers the following distinct advantages: much more neutrality is involved in this assessment offers much more advantages to management when compared to assessment techniques More powerful selling tool to management It is very flexible in nature and can be moulded to different situations. It can be adjusted according to the needs of specific industries. Its appeal is very universal in nature and hence does not give rise to much disagreements The base facts of the analysis are very convincing ones. In order to implement quantitative risk analysis, the total estimated value that would account to the losses that would occur due to time delay, theft or loss of data is to be calculated. Then a probability analysis is done so that the chances of the risk occurring can be calculated. After all this is done in the final step the annual loss expectancy is calculated. (Miller). A quantitative risk analysis analyses the results that certain controversial units would have on outcomes that we are most concerned about such as loss, profit and investment returns. Quantitative risk gives different perspectives on different people: To the security consultant: To attract newly started businesses by adapting quantitative analysis to access projects that were out of reach in the past. If the projects met up to the predicted return on investment then it could serve as a better tool for marketing. To the companys upper management: Less vulnerable to company politics time required for assessing proposal validity is very less Inter- relates final results to financial aims and goals. Quantitative risk analysis assists managers in analyzing whether the projects can be completed in a particular time frame and within the required estimated budget. It also helps in finding out the key parameters that would determine the success or failure of the project. It also helps in finding out whether the project is worth investing in for investors. But all these data should have some historical backing otherwise they would be rendered meaningless. These data should be updated from time to time during the due course of the project taking the actual input parameters into consideration. This in other terms is also known as â€Å"Garbage In – Garbage Out. Even though all this is done project management is subject to certain biases. The most basic solution is to collect data from qualitative project management software. This kind of integration has already been implemented and has been successful in the past as well. Quantitative risk analysis tools initiate Monte Carlo process to find out how risks would have an impact on project schedules. The most well known methods for simulating risks and other problems is Event Chain Methodology. In this methodology all the projects tat are present are effected by certain external parameters which could in turn change the face of the project. These events should be analysed with the help of the qualitative risk management software. This is an important aspect as these measures could give rise to event chains that can alter the course of the project. By finding out these event chains the risks involved can be reduced. Quantitative risk analysis is more related to implementing safety measures when compared to qualitative risk analysis is. This risk analysis when implemented by companies tries to protect the firm from every defined risk. It also helps in determining which counter method can be used for minimizing the risks involved with projects. In this method the risk assessments are generally represented in graphs and probability charts which generates a clear understanding among firms and hence is also favoured by management teams. 2.6 Qualitative Risk Analysis: Qualitative risk analysis forms as primary source of data for further evaluations. It acts as an initial screening for all activities associated with the project to identify the possible risks that may or may not require further analysis (Quantitative). Sometimes managers tend to overlook simple risks which may cause substantial damage while looking for more complex ones which might not be that important. Also studying the project document and technologies used might help identifying certain generic risks. For example, a project which uses widely used or known components poses minimal threats when compared to using first to use or more advanced technology. Qualitative analysis helps prioritizing such risks according to the level they affect the final project objectives. This helps the managers with the decision making on how best they can plan the project in a safe way. While doing qualitative risk analysis, managers generally tend to include their personal and previous experiences in dealing with similar kind of projects or tasks. They asses the importance of risk factors according to their experience. In this process we first identify what are the main sources from where risk can originate. This is done by conducting interviews and getting feedback fro questioners. Then an assessment is done to increase the level of understanding of each risk and the extent to which they could affect the project. For this qualitative risk analysis process there is no probability database required and it is widely used analysis by the organisations. 2.7 Techniques used for Qualitative Analysis: The most common methods of obtaining necessary data for screening risks are: To know the stakeholders and shareholders interests regarding the current project. Collecting critical information from stakeholders and clients to analyze the final objectives in a realistic way. Understanding the organizational structure and policies to carry out the task efficiently. Using effective benchmarking techniques from projects handled previously. Understanding the key objectives and criticality of each task associated with the project to categorize risks according to their importance. However, after collecting the information and assigning the risk factors to different grids or categories, the managers need to decide on the need to go for further investigation and to implement effective risk management plans. In order to do this, every manager should ask themselves a few questions such as: What are the critical phases in the project and where the potential risks are going wrong during that phase? The effect of that risk in carrying out the tasks related to the respective phases and how its delaying the overall project. Weather the potential risks can be eliminated by simple methods or changes in the project plan or they are far too complex to minimize without using further analysis and sophisticated techniques. When a manager could answer these questions, he would be in a position to effectively plan and implement risk aversion plans by using appropriate tools or techniques. The Qualitative risk analysis gives the manager a true power of information to make his decision. Generally the qualitative risk analysis will be succeeded by quantitative risk analysis which gives more insight on numbers such as project period, completion dates and budget. 3. Organisational Risk Analysis: The combination of a threat and the resulting impact to the organisation defines the risk to the organisation. It is an important task that we asses all the intricate issues that the organisation is facing. Only after this assessment we can know the overall risk that the firm is facing and the appropriate counter methods that can be implemented in minimizing these risks. When a risk assessment is carried out we take an over all perspective on behalf of the organisation. We first find out every major business processes that take place in the organisation and then we focus on the situations from where risks would arise. We then provide detailed list to management of the different types of risk involved so that management can counter with them.. The National Audit Office Report Managing Risks to Improve Public Services ( NAO 2004) identified five key aspects of organisational risk analysis and made recommendations for improving organisational risk analysis practice in central government. Sufficient time, resource and top level commitment needs to be devoted to handling risks in an organisation. Responsibility and accountability for risks need to be clear, backed up by scrutiny and robust challenge to provide assurance. In an Organisation, departments need to base their judgements about risks on reliable, timely and up to date information. Risk analysis needs to be applied throughout departments delivery networks. Departments need to continue to develop their understanding of the common risks they share and work together to manage them. An Organisational Risk Analysis is a tool for governance and getting its †¦ Students Paper: Direct Quote: †¦ getting its right is important. Selecting the correct method for performing the analysis is †¦ http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Assessing+Organizational+Risk.-a063326228 †¦ getting it right is important. Selecting the correct method for performing the assessment is †¦ †¦ analysis is a critical first step. Successful audit staff or risk analysis team creates evaluation criteria that will be used to evaluate the risks to the organisation. The analysis team reviews each risk and assigns it an impact value. Successful audit staff uses some basic approaches to determine which technique will provide the most value for the organisation. Organisational Risk Analysis is a very important factor while handling projects for all organisations in todays business world. In any project that is undertaken risk is present. It depends on the nature of the project. Some projects are riskier when compared to others; this is due to the kind of risk, the technology present and the environment in which they are encountered. Project management has been designed to coordinate and be in charge of complicated and different business processes in different field such as IT and industrial sectors. (Web2, 2009) This above diagram shows how an organisation relates with other departments like software, technology and environment etc. Handling with any of them causes uncertainties or risks. To overcome those risks associated in projects, ORA (Organisational Risk Analysis) helps. Risk is uncertainty of outcome, and good risk analysis allows an organisation to: Have increased confidence in achieving its desired outcomes Effectively constrain threats to acceptable levels Take informed decisions about exploiting opportunities. When ever we will get a change this risk occurs for those organisations. It is important to understand effect of change and the results of change as these are important in devising an appropriate strategy. Those are Developmental: â€Å"It is a change which enhances or corrects existing aspects of an organisation, often focusing on the progress of a skill or process. â€Å" Transitional: It is episodic, planned and fundamental. Most of the organisational change literature is based on this type of change only. Transformational: It is radical in nature; it requires a change in assumptions made by the organisation and by its people. Using these types of changes and its characteristics can be placed beside two scales: radical- incremental and core- peripheral (Pennington 2003). The diagram above shows us how difficult it is introduce a particular decision into the market and the number of changes that may result in introducing this decision. If major changes are made to the central business then it would initiate a lot of disturbance. The processes that are associated with the core business can be changed as they can be adjusted in the due course of time; this is mostly for firms who are involved with continuous improvement. Successful audit staff or risk analysis team generally use any of the three basic approaches. The database approach The algorithm approach The matrix approach Understanding the strengths and weakness of each method is essential for determining which technique will provide the most value for the organisation. 3.1 The Database Approach: For assessing any kind of organisational risk, compiling a risk database is a popular method. Here each work group is interviewed and the main products and processes are identified where the risks associated with each process are displayed. These are then stocked in a database from where similar reports can be accessed for reference so that the risk faced by the work unit can be analysed. This database approach is chosen by so many accounting firms and it is favoured by them, which may tag it as â€Å"risk profiling †¦ Students Paper: Direct Quote: †¦ the analysis is a critical first step. Successful audit staff or risk †¦ http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Assessing+Organizational+Risk.-a063326228 †¦ the assessment is a critical first step. Successful audit staffs generally use †¦ †¦ or risk analysis team creates evaluation criteria that will be used to evaluate the risks to the organisation. The analysis team reviews each risk and assigns it an impact value. Successful audit staff uses some basic approaches to †¦ Students Paper: Direct Quote: †¦ approaches to determine which technique will provide the most value for the organisation. Organisational †¦ http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Assessing+Organizational+Risk.-a063326228 †¦ is essential for determining which technique will provide the most value for the organization. THE †¦ †¦ organisation. Organisational Risk Analysis is a very important factor while handling projects for all organisations in todays business world. In any project that is undertaken risk is present. It depends on the nature of the project. Some projects are riskier when compared to others; this is due to the kind of risk, the technology present and the environment in which they are encountered. Project management has been designed to coordinate and be in charge of complicated and different business processes in different field such as IT and industrial sectors. (Web2, 2009) This above diagram shows how an organisation relates with other departments like software, technology and environment etc. Handling with any of them causes uncertainties or risks. To overcome those risks associated in projects, ORA (Organisational Risk Analysis) helps. Risk is uncertainty of outcome, and good risk analysis allows an organisation to: Have increased confidence in achieving its desired outcomes Effectively constrain threats to acceptable levels Take informed decisions about exploiting opportunities. When ever we will get a change this risk occurs for those organisations. It is important to understand effect of change and the results of change as these are important in devising an appropriate strategy. Those are Developmental: â€Å"It is a change which enhances or corrects existing aspects of an organisation, often focusing on the progress of a skill or process. â€Å" Transitional Organisational Risk Management in Project Management Organisational Risk Management in Project Management CHAPTER 2 2.1 Preview This chapter provides the reader about the theory and rationale behind the use of Organisational Risk Analysis (ORA) on project management and its methodologies available in the market. It will also cover the work of different authors to afford better understanding of the subjected area i.e. Project management, Risk analysis and Organisational risk analysis. The source of information of this literature review is mainly from books, journals and white papers. 2.2 Introduction Through this literature review one can know what others understanding about this study i.e. nothing but historical perspectives. First part of the literature focuses on project management and risk analysis and risk analysis types, second part of this literature focuses on Organisational Risk Analysis (ORA) and Role of ORA in Project management. It mainly concentrates on Project management, risk analysis and organisational risk analysis. 2.3 Introduction to Project Management: PMBOK (Project Management Body of Knowledge as defined by the Project Management Institute — PMI):Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements. (PMI 2004) According to James P. Lewis â€Å"The Project management is facilitating the planning, scheduling and controlling of all activities that must be done to achieve project objectives† (James P. Lewis: 2007) PRINCE 2 project management methodology: The planning, monitoring and control of all aspects of the project and the motivation of all those involved in it to achieve the project objectives on time and to the specified cost, quality and performance. A project is usually one time activity with a well defined set of desired and results. It can be divided into subtasks that must be accomplished in order to achieve the project goals. In this day and age also it is assumed that project management can be enhanced by scientific methods. There is a very strong reason why these beliefs are created, it all accounts to the fact that todays modern world has given professionals numerous amount of opportunities to execute their projects successfully. Such are the kind of investment options that are given to project investors. They are briefed with all the minute details so that they feel that their investment is secure. They also make sure that the estimated time of completion and the end can be calculated at the beginning of the project itself. The decisions that are taken on a technical basis or which are taken looking at the low opportunity costs that it presents are reversible in nature. The demand for resources can also be calculated once the initial parameters such as the duration and time frame of the project are estimated. Due to the advancement in technology even the most terrible consequences can be predicted. à ¢â‚¬Å"The failure of the project was due to the lack of skills rather than an inappropriate feasibility, suitability or acceptability of the solution. This is a normal–science view of project management.† (Charette and Robert, 1996) The projection of ideas and activities into new accomplishments are one of the common characteristics of all projects. There are many different definitions of what constitutes project management such as â€Å"An unique set of co-ordinated activities, with definite starting and finishing points, undertaken by an individual or a team to meet specific objectives within a definite period of time, cost and performance parameters† (Office of Government Commerce). (Web4, 2009) J. Pinto and Prescott (1990) stated, â€Å"Researchers in project management need to first and most importantly offer a comprehensive, inclusive, and clear definition of project success before attempting to undertake studies of the project implementation process†. (J.Pinto and Prescott, 1990) The modern project management started in 1950s, before this period projects were executed in an unplanned manner and the methods and tools used for execution were not professional in nature. The importance of project management is a very important topic because all organisations i.e. either be they are small or large organisations, those are involved in implementing new accomplishments. These accomplishments may be diverse, such as, the improvement of an innovative product, introducing a new range of products in a manufacturing base, a promotional advertisement or a major construction project. In the 1980s the focus was more on the quality of work. Globalisation played a huge role in the 1990s as we were trying to improve our economy, the 2000s saw projects with decreased time frames. A new field known as project management was developing from all new areas of application which included construction, engineering, telecommunications, and defence. This emerging field has now become an important part of our economy as it has produced a string of fabulous results. Hence it is now being applied by the corporate world as well as the government. Duncan Haughey (2008) explained some main definitions of what project management is: â€Å"Project management is not a continuous process. It has a definite beginning and end.† â€Å"Project management uses various tools to measure accomplishments and track project tasks. These include Work Breakdown Structures, Gantt charts and PERT charts.† â€Å"Projects frequently need resources on an ad-hoc basis as opposed to organisations that have only dedicated full-time positions.† â€Å"Project management reduces risk and increases the chance of success.† â€Å"Successful project management is delivering your projects on time, to brief and within budget.† (Duncan Haughy, 2008) 2.3.1 Methodology of Project Management: According to Bradley (2002) Project management methodology means â€Å"Project Management Methodology focuses on the project and can be in any industry and any type of projects ranging from construction to aerospace industries and from projects of Financial to IT in nature, it encompasses all projects† The above diagram shows the main components of one of the main project management methodology. Some of the elements like project start-up and project closure occur only once. The remaining elements like planning, managing and controlling, form an interactive cycle that may repeat many times before the completion of the project. In other words we can also say project management is the discipline of planning, organising and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific projects goals and objectives. Each and every project is different in nature. Any project would involve a certain amount of risk and hence require perfect planning and execution if they have to succeed. The main aim of project management is to predict any complications or problems in the project well before hand so that when the project plan is made all these factors can also be taken into consideration and hence the chances of the project being completed successfully would be much higher. Almost every project we do in todays business world involve a risk of some kind: change in customer needs, unrealistic time scales, inappropriate staff, poor project specifications , failure to manage user expectations could delay the project. Projects need to be performed and delivered under certain constraints. Traditionally these constraints have been listed as scope, time and quality. This is also called as ‘project management triangle. One side of the triangle cannot be changed without affecting others. The time constraint refers to the amount of time available to complete a project, scope refers to what must be done to produce the projects end result and cost refers to the budgeted amount available for the project. Increasing Scope ( Increasing Time + Increasing Cost Decreasing Time ( Increasing Cost + Reducing Scope Tight Budget ( Increase Time + Reducing Scope. If we modify any of the factors, the other two has to be changed, if not the risk may appear high. But formal risk analysis and risk management can help you to assess these risks and decide what action to take to minimize disruptions to your project plans. According to J. Davidson Frame (2007) the basic outline of project management is described below Project managers bear ultimate responsibility for making things happen. Traditionally, they have carried out this role as mere implementers. To do their jobs they needed to have basic administrative and technical competencies. Today they play a far broader role. In addition to the traditional skills, they need to have business skills, customer relations skills, and political skills. Psychologically, they must be results-oriented self-starters with a high tolerance for ambiguity, because little is clear-cut in todays tumultuous business environment. Shortcomings in any of these areas can lead to project failure. – (J. Davidson Frame, 2007) Project management is discipline that applies to any project; every company has their own way of doing their projects. The project management is not very easy it is totally a leadership position and with technical talent it cannot be done. Project manager without enough experience cannot hold for a long-time on the same project if the assumption of the company goes wrong in selecting the project manager it will be in risk. (Sanjay Murthi, Preventive Risk Management for Software Projects) 2.4 Risk Analysis: The word ‘RISK derives from the early Italian risicare, which means ‘TO DARE. (Websters Dictionary: 1989) One of the most important activities in project management is to identify and manage the uncertainties and problems during the project tenure. When dealing with research and development projects it must be made note of that the number of events present are very high which could alter the course of the project The amount of risk involved in the project would mainly depend on the size of the project. The contractors of the project are the people who deal with the risks of the project, their main duties would involve to identify risks. Then they study them and find as solution so that could remove or minimize them. Apart form this they should also have a clear understanding of the different types of risk involved and ways as to how they can be managed and projects can be completed in a risk free manner. (The Owners Role in Project Risk Management National Research Council (U.S.A). Committee for Oversight and Assessment of U.S. the national academic press, Washington DC). A report that shows assets, vulnerabilities, likelihood of damage, estimates of the costs of recovery, summaries of possible defensive measures and their costs and estimated probable savings from better protection. A risk analysis is the process of assessing the level of risk involved, this is also known as a threat and risk assessment. A threat is a harmful act such as the deployment of a virus or illegal network penetration. A risk is the expectation that a threat may succeed and the potential damage that can occur. (Web1, 2009) Risk analysis allows you to examine the risks that your organization faces. It is the process of systematically identifying and assessing the potential risks and uncertainties that occur when trying to achieve a certain goal (like reaching a target income or finishing a project), and then finding a feasible strategy for most efficiently controlling those risks. ‘The systematic process to understand the nature of and to deduce the level of risk. It provides the basis for risk evaluation and decisions about risk treatment. (AS/NZS 4360:2004 (p. 4). According to Michael R. Greenberg †Risk Analysis ranked among the top 10 journals in the ISI Journal Citation Reports under the social sciences, mathematical methods category is designed to meet the need for organization, integration, and communication and provide a focal point for new developments in the field.† (Michael R. Greenberg: 2008) Evidence from the literature suggests that project managers perform risk analysis because somebody else, e.g. their client, the parent company or the Government, has demanded it (Boothroyd, 1996; Smith, 1998). The analysis of risk is being increasingly viewed as a field in itself, and the demand for a more orderly and formal treatment of risk is great. This international journal is committed to publishing critical empirical research, conference proceedings, and commentaries dealing with risk issues. In other terms we can say the measure of risk can be determined as a product of threat, vulnerability and asset value in an organisation. Risk = Asset * Threat * Vulnerability. Risk analysis may play an important role in cost- benefit studies, which compare the costs of a particular action or project against its potential benefits. It is a systematic study of uncertainties and risks we encounter in business, engineering and many other areas. Risk analysts seek to identify the risks faced by an organization or a business unit, understand how and when they arise, and estimate the impact of adverse outcomes. Techniques used in risk analysis include sensitivity analysis, probability analysis, simulation and modeling. Risk analysis may be used to develop an organizational risk profile, and also may be the first stage in risk management program. Risk analysis may be undertaken to varying degrees of detail depending upon the risk, the purpose of the analysis, and the information, data and resources available. In todays world where competition has become global, it is very important that firms control the different kinds of risk that they are dealing with as it has become an essential part in achieving corporate success. The people who are involved such as customers, investors and others asking companies for complete transparency on their investments. Thus risk analysis is necessary to protect an organisations competitive position. Most industries are particularly plagued by risks, but it has been slow in realising the potential benefits of sound and systematic risk management (Al-Bahar and Crandall, 1990; Ward et. al. 1991; Thomson and Perry, 1992; Flanagan and Norman, 1993; Raftery, 1994; Fellows, 1996; Edward and Bowen, 1998).While coming for the software industries risk analysis and management are a sequential progression that help in guiding a software team in understanding and managing risks. A risk is a potential problem, it might happen, it might not. But regardless of the outcome it is really good idea to identify it, assess its probability of occurrence, estimate the impact and establish a contingency plan should the problem actually occurs. According to Bernstein â€Å"the mystery of risk is a critical step in the development of modern society. One can discuss the validity of his conclusion, but there should be no doubt that risk and uncertainty are important concepts to address for supporting decision-making in many situations†. This Risk Analysis may be qualitative, semi-qualitative or quantitative or a combination of these three, depending on the circumstances. The criticality of risk analysis doesnt wholly depend on identifying the risk factors. It also depends on categorizing them according to their threat level. So let us see how the whole concept of risk analysis starts. There are two types of risk analysis. Both these methods are very important in the assessment of risk and can be executed in any order. It is very important to understand the difference between these two risks as there is a very thin line separating them. Those are: Quantitative Risk Analysis Qualitative Risk Analysis (Identification of types of risk analysis) 2.5. Quantitative Risk Analysis: Quantitative Risk Analysis has become an important component of project management. Quantitative risk analysis attempts to assign independently objective monetary values to the components of the risk assessment and to the assessment of the potential loss. According to Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK  ® Guide, Third edition 2004, Project Management Institute) â€Å"Quantitative Risk Analysis is performed on risks that have been prioritized by the Qualitative Risk Analysis process as potentially and substantially impacting project ‘s completing demands. The Quantitative Risk Analysis process analyzes the effect of those risk events and assigns a numerical rating to those risks.† (PMBOK Guide, 2004) This method gives the project manager a foresight as to how the project would progress if risks associated with it would occur. Hence due to this method the project mangers are able to counter these risks and also account to better execution of projects. A quantitative risk analysis offers the following distinct advantages: much more neutrality is involved in this assessment offers much more advantages to management when compared to assessment techniques More powerful selling tool to management It is very flexible in nature and can be moulded to different situations. It can be adjusted according to the needs of specific industries. Its appeal is very universal in nature and hence does not give rise to much disagreements The base facts of the analysis are very convincing ones. In order to implement quantitative risk analysis, the total estimated value that would account to the losses that would occur due to time delay, theft or loss of data is to be calculated. Then a probability analysis is done so that the chances of the risk occurring can be calculated. After all this is done in the final step the annual loss expectancy is calculated. (Miller). A quantitative risk analysis analyses the results that certain controversial units would have on outcomes that we are most concerned about such as loss, profit and investment returns. Quantitative risk gives different perspectives on different people: To the security consultant: To attract newly started businesses by adapting quantitative analysis to access projects that were out of reach in the past. If the projects met up to the predicted return on investment then it could serve as a better tool for marketing. To the companys upper management: Less vulnerable to company politics time required for assessing proposal validity is very less Inter- relates final results to financial aims and goals. Quantitative risk analysis assists managers in analyzing whether the projects can be completed in a particular time frame and within the required estimated budget. It also helps in finding out the key parameters that would determine the success or failure of the project. It also helps in finding out whether the project is worth investing in for investors. But all these data should have some historical backing otherwise they would be rendered meaningless. These data should be updated from time to time during the due course of the project taking the actual input parameters into consideration. This in other terms is also known as â€Å"Garbage In – Garbage Out. Even though all this is done project management is subject to certain biases. The most basic solution is to collect data from qualitative project management software. This kind of integration has already been implemented and has been successful in the past as well. Quantitative risk analysis tools initiate Monte Carlo process to find out how risks would have an impact on project schedules. The most well known methods for simulating risks and other problems is Event Chain Methodology. In this methodology all the projects tat are present are effected by certain external parameters which could in turn change the face of the project. These events should be analysed with the help of the qualitative risk management software. This is an important aspect as these measures could give rise to event chains that can alter the course of the project. By finding out these event chains the risks involved can be reduced. Quantitative risk analysis is more related to implementing safety measures when compared to qualitative risk analysis is. This risk analysis when implemented by companies tries to protect the firm from every defined risk. It also helps in determining which counter method can be used for minimizing the risks involved with projects. In this method the risk assessments are generally represented in graphs and probability charts which generates a clear understanding among firms and hence is also favoured by management teams. 2.6 Qualitative Risk Analysis: Qualitative risk analysis forms as primary source of data for further evaluations. It acts as an initial screening for all activities associated with the project to identify the possible risks that may or may not require further analysis (Quantitative). Sometimes managers tend to overlook simple risks which may cause substantial damage while looking for more complex ones which might not be that important. Also studying the project document and technologies used might help identifying certain generic risks. For example, a project which uses widely used or known components poses minimal threats when compared to using first to use or more advanced technology. Qualitative analysis helps prioritizing such risks according to the level they affect the final project objectives. This helps the managers with the decision making on how best they can plan the project in a safe way. While doing qualitative risk analysis, managers generally tend to include their personal and previous experiences in dealing with similar kind of projects or tasks. They asses the importance of risk factors according to their experience. In this process we first identify what are the main sources from where risk can originate. This is done by conducting interviews and getting feedback fro questioners. Then an assessment is done to increase the level of understanding of each risk and the extent to which they could affect the project. For this qualitative risk analysis process there is no probability database required and it is widely used analysis by the organisations. 2.7 Techniques used for Qualitative Analysis: The most common methods of obtaining necessary data for screening risks are: To know the stakeholders and shareholders interests regarding the current project. Collecting critical information from stakeholders and clients to analyze the final objectives in a realistic way. Understanding the organizational structure and policies to carry out the task efficiently. Using effective benchmarking techniques from projects handled previously. Understanding the key objectives and criticality of each task associated with the project to categorize risks according to their importance. However, after collecting the information and assigning the risk factors to different grids or categories, the managers need to decide on the need to go for further investigation and to implement effective risk management plans. In order to do this, every manager should ask themselves a few questions such as: What are the critical phases in the project and where the potential risks are going wrong during that phase? The effect of that risk in carrying out the tasks related to the respective phases and how its delaying the overall project. Weather the potential risks can be eliminated by simple methods or changes in the project plan or they are far too complex to minimize without using further analysis and sophisticated techniques. When a manager could answer these questions, he would be in a position to effectively plan and implement risk aversion plans by using appropriate tools or techniques. The Qualitative risk analysis gives the manager a true power of information to make his decision. Generally the qualitative risk analysis will be succeeded by quantitative risk analysis which gives more insight on numbers such as project period, completion dates and budget. 3. Organisational Risk Analysis: The combination of a threat and the resulting impact to the organisation defines the risk to the organisation. It is an important task that we asses all the intricate issues that the organisation is facing. Only after this assessment we can know the overall risk that the firm is facing and the appropriate counter methods that can be implemented in minimizing these risks. When a risk assessment is carried out we take an over all perspective on behalf of the organisation. We first find out every major business processes that take place in the organisation and then we focus on the situations from where risks would arise. We then provide detailed list to management of the different types of risk involved so that management can counter with them.. The National Audit Office Report Managing Risks to Improve Public Services ( NAO 2004) identified five key aspects of organisational risk analysis and made recommendations for improving organisational risk analysis practice in central government. Sufficient time, resource and top level commitment needs to be devoted to handling risks in an organisation. Responsibility and accountability for risks need to be clear, backed up by scrutiny and robust challenge to provide assurance. In an Organisation, departments need to base their judgements about risks on reliable, timely and up to date information. Risk analysis needs to be applied throughout departments delivery networks. Departments need to continue to develop their understanding of the common risks they share and work together to manage them. An Organisational Risk Analysis is a tool for governance and getting its †¦ Students Paper: Direct Quote: †¦ getting its right is important. Selecting the correct method for performing the analysis is †¦ http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Assessing+Organizational+Risk.-a063326228 †¦ getting it right is important. Selecting the correct method for performing the assessment is †¦ †¦ analysis is a critical first step. Successful audit staff or risk analysis team creates evaluation criteria that will be used to evaluate the risks to the organisation. The analysis team reviews each risk and assigns it an impact value. Successful audit staff uses some basic approaches to determine which technique will provide the most value for the organisation. Organisational Risk Analysis is a very important factor while handling projects for all organisations in todays business world. In any project that is undertaken risk is present. It depends on the nature of the project. Some projects are riskier when compared to others; this is due to the kind of risk, the technology present and the environment in which they are encountered. Project management has been designed to coordinate and be in charge of complicated and different business processes in different field such as IT and industrial sectors. (Web2, 2009) This above diagram shows how an organisation relates with other departments like software, technology and environment etc. Handling with any of them causes uncertainties or risks. To overcome those risks associated in projects, ORA (Organisational Risk Analysis) helps. Risk is uncertainty of outcome, and good risk analysis allows an organisation to: Have increased confidence in achieving its desired outcomes Effectively constrain threats to acceptable levels Take informed decisions about exploiting opportunities. When ever we will get a change this risk occurs for those organisations. It is important to understand effect of change and the results of change as these are important in devising an appropriate strategy. Those are Developmental: â€Å"It is a change which enhances or corrects existing aspects of an organisation, often focusing on the progress of a skill or process. â€Å" Transitional: It is episodic, planned and fundamental. Most of the organisational change literature is based on this type of change only. Transformational: It is radical in nature; it requires a change in assumptions made by the organisation and by its people. Using these types of changes and its characteristics can be placed beside two scales: radical- incremental and core- peripheral (Pennington 2003). The diagram above shows us how difficult it is introduce a particular decision into the market and the number of changes that may result in introducing this decision. If major changes are made to the central business then it would initiate a lot of disturbance. The processes that are associated with the core business can be changed as they can be adjusted in the due course of time; this is mostly for firms who are involved with continuous improvement. Successful audit staff or risk analysis team generally use any of the three basic approaches. The database approach The algorithm approach The matrix approach Understanding the strengths and weakness of each method is essential for determining which technique will provide the most value for the organisation. 3.1 The Database Approach: For assessing any kind of organisational risk, compiling a risk database is a popular method. Here each work group is interviewed and the main products and processes are identified where the risks associated with each process are displayed. These are then stocked in a database from where similar reports can be accessed for reference so that the risk faced by the work unit can be analysed. This database approach is chosen by so many accounting firms and it is favoured by them, which may tag it as â€Å"risk profiling †¦ Students Paper: Direct Quote: †¦ the analysis is a critical first step. Successful audit staff or risk †¦ http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Assessing+Organizational+Risk.-a063326228 †¦ the assessment is a critical first step. Successful audit staffs generally use †¦ †¦ or risk analysis team creates evaluation criteria that will be used to evaluate the risks to the organisation. The analysis team reviews each risk and assigns it an impact value. Successful audit staff uses some basic approaches to †¦ Students Paper: Direct Quote: †¦ approaches to determine which technique will provide the most value for the organisation. Organisational †¦ http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Assessing+Organizational+Risk.-a063326228 †¦ is essential for determining which technique will provide the most value for the organization. THE †¦ †¦ organisation. Organisational Risk Analysis is a very important factor while handling projects for all organisations in todays business world. In any project that is undertaken risk is present. It depends on the nature of the project. Some projects are riskier when compared to others; this is due to the kind of risk, the technology present and the environment in which they are encountered. Project management has been designed to coordinate and be in charge of complicated and different business processes in different field such as IT and industrial sectors. (Web2, 2009) This above diagram shows how an organisation relates with other departments like software, technology and environment etc. Handling with any of them causes uncertainties or risks. To overcome those risks associated in projects, ORA (Organisational Risk Analysis) helps. Risk is uncertainty of outcome, and good risk analysis allows an organisation to: Have increased confidence in achieving its desired outcomes Effectively constrain threats to acceptable levels Take informed decisions about exploiting opportunities. When ever we will get a change this risk occurs for those organisations. It is important to understand effect of change and the results of change as these are important in devising an appropriate strategy. Those are Developmental: â€Å"It is a change which enhances or corrects existing aspects of an organisation, often focusing on the progress of a skill or process. â€Å" Transitional

Moral Implications of the Battered Woman Syndrome Essay -- Domestic Vi

Moral Implications of the Battered Woman Syndrome The Battered Woman Syndrome, like the Cycle Theory of Violence, helps to illuminate the situation of the person victimized by domestic violence. However, it may also contribute to the violence of the battering situation. In this paper, I explore some of the implications of the Battered Woman Syndrome for domestic violence cases wherein an abused woman kills her abuser. I begin by delineating some of the circumstances of a domestic violence situation. I then discuss the particular moral issue of subjectivity or moral personhood involved in instances wherein a woman victimized by domestic violence responds by killing her batterer. Finally, I argue that the Battered Woman Syndrome and similar alternatives to or qualifications of self-defense are problematic because they strip a woman of her moral subjectivity. I conclude with a brief articulation of a proposal for reform of the criminal justice system specifically aimed at cases wherein there has been a long history of abuse or violence . This reform is unique because it does not rely on a separate standard of reasonableness particular to battered women, but arises out of consideration of the moral implications of legal proceedings involving domestic violence. Introduction The case of battered women who kill raises some interesting questions regarding the criminal justice system's ability to respond to domestic violence. The Battered Woman Syndrome, like the Cycle Theory of Violence, helps to illuminate the situation of the battered woman, why she does not just leave the relationship, and why some domestic violence relationships end in the death of the batterer. However, it may also contribute to the violence of domestic viol... ...77), pp. 113-118. (10) See Charles Ewing, esp. Chapter 4. (11) Walker, p. 143. (12) See Cynthia Gillespie, Justifiable Homicide (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press, 1989). (13) This applies to cases where immediate threat of danger is not present. For instance, if a woman kills her batterer while he is asleep then there is said to be no immediate threat of lethal harm. If, however, the batterer is killed in the battering incident, then immediate threat of lethal harm is present and the standard understanding of self-defense should apply. However, there are numerous cases of the latter and the woman was nonetheless found guilty of some form of murder or manslaughter. See Ewing, Chapter 4. (14) Ewing, p. 79. (15) Ann Jones, "A Little Knowledge" in Take Back the Night edited by Laura Lederer (New York: William Morrow and Co., 1980), p. 182-183. Moral Implications of the Battered Woman Syndrome Essay -- Domestic Vi Moral Implications of the Battered Woman Syndrome The Battered Woman Syndrome, like the Cycle Theory of Violence, helps to illuminate the situation of the person victimized by domestic violence. However, it may also contribute to the violence of the battering situation. In this paper, I explore some of the implications of the Battered Woman Syndrome for domestic violence cases wherein an abused woman kills her abuser. I begin by delineating some of the circumstances of a domestic violence situation. I then discuss the particular moral issue of subjectivity or moral personhood involved in instances wherein a woman victimized by domestic violence responds by killing her batterer. Finally, I argue that the Battered Woman Syndrome and similar alternatives to or qualifications of self-defense are problematic because they strip a woman of her moral subjectivity. I conclude with a brief articulation of a proposal for reform of the criminal justice system specifically aimed at cases wherein there has been a long history of abuse or violence . This reform is unique because it does not rely on a separate standard of reasonableness particular to battered women, but arises out of consideration of the moral implications of legal proceedings involving domestic violence. Introduction The case of battered women who kill raises some interesting questions regarding the criminal justice system's ability to respond to domestic violence. The Battered Woman Syndrome, like the Cycle Theory of Violence, helps to illuminate the situation of the battered woman, why she does not just leave the relationship, and why some domestic violence relationships end in the death of the batterer. However, it may also contribute to the violence of domestic viol... ...77), pp. 113-118. (10) See Charles Ewing, esp. Chapter 4. (11) Walker, p. 143. (12) See Cynthia Gillespie, Justifiable Homicide (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press, 1989). (13) This applies to cases where immediate threat of danger is not present. For instance, if a woman kills her batterer while he is asleep then there is said to be no immediate threat of lethal harm. If, however, the batterer is killed in the battering incident, then immediate threat of lethal harm is present and the standard understanding of self-defense should apply. However, there are numerous cases of the latter and the woman was nonetheless found guilty of some form of murder or manslaughter. See Ewing, Chapter 4. (14) Ewing, p. 79. (15) Ann Jones, "A Little Knowledge" in Take Back the Night edited by Laura Lederer (New York: William Morrow and Co., 1980), p. 182-183.

Evolution of Gender Essay

The evolution of gender issues ever since man can remember, when most societies used to regard women as inferior to men. It is no secret that from the first century up to the 21st century women roles have changed with time although the change is minimal. In not long time ago, women were regarded by customary law as people who used to take up their roles as wives and matters subserviently and any deviation that a woman showed from these roles was unheard off and was considered an outcast in the society. After the world wars, education, politics, warfare, business and other form of violence were territories of men, a few women joined men in these venture. The society looked these women with amazement and wonder. Early the 1950’s and 60’s change started hitting the world especially in the Chinese environment where women became advocates of women empowerment. (Haslanger, Sally, and Nancy Tuana,2004). In the 1970’s and 80’s women started taking their roles seriously enabling them to evolve very fast. Women confronted men’s duties with a lot of courage and men started accepting the fact that women wanted to carry out the roles. Although some men gave women cruel attention but they have persevered and gone ahead with the quest for change in the roles. Haslanger, Sally, and Nancy (Tuana Haslanger, Sally, and Nancy Tuana,2004). The question about women regarded as wives and mothers who are incapable of bringing any change in the society have been brushed aside by many countries giving women top most jobs in the country. England and Pakistan have shown the way which shows that today in England and Pakistan women are almost equal to men in terms of respect and all aspects. Women are now free to take up riles which were previously considered a dominance by men. But one thing remains clear that total equality will not be achieved since it is not easy to kill the illusion that women are inferior to men (KateChopin. org. ,2008) Matters such as education, politics, warfare, business, and almost anything non-domestic were the territories of men where only a few and daring women ever ventured. However, as times changed more and more women became advocates of women empowerment. In relation to this, the writer wishes to state that the purpose of this paper is to present a work regarded as one of the pioneers in feminist literature. Women evolution is not only a core element of development in the world today but also a strong indication of strong families. Women empowerment puts wealth in the hands of women which enables these women to be able to succeed in ensuring their families are successive. The development of women in the societies is proving to be failing in some countries with backward leadership such as Zimbabwe and development will remain lagged behind. Statistics show an upward trend for change of roles of women in the society at a whole. Although change is not such effective it is felt. Statistics demonstrate that in Europe, Africa, Asia, America actually there is evolution in the way women are viewed. Although in some rural areas there are alarming number of domestic violence instances reported and they relate to ability or the demand for women to be empowered. In the late 1800 significant events occurred which changed the roles of women in the society. One of such event was first international women’s conference which was held in France in 1892 which highlighted the achievements of women and their rights. Since then women have achieved much in trying to change their lives. In the story of Silk Road of china relating to women capability of growth there has been change of women roles especially entry into the business world although some are being used into the business circles as objects. (KateChopin.org,2008 and Haslanger, Sally, and Nancy Tuana,2004) Works Cited Chopin, Kate. â€Å"The Story of an Hour. † www. pbs. org Public Broadcasting Service. 14 Jun 2008 . Haslanger, Sally, and Nancy Tuana. â€Å"Topics in Feminism. † plato. stanford. edu 15 March 2004. Stanford University. 14 Jun 2008 . KateChopin. org, â€Å"Kate Chopin â€Å"The Story of an Hour†. † www. katechopin. org. 2008. Kate Chopin International Society. 14 Jun 2008 .

“How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife” by Manuel E. Arguilla Essay

Baldo and his older brother Leon were both waiting for their visitor riding a carratela. When Baldo sa his older brother’s wife, who is Maria, he was amazed by her beauty as he narrates their journey to their home in Nagrebcan. Maria was felt a bit anxious because of meeting Leon and Baldo’s parents for the first time, but along their way home, she discovered the differences of the life of the people lived there and the life in the city where she met and fell in love with Leon. Characters Leon/Noel – Maria’s husband, older brother of BaldoMaria – Leon’s wife Baldo – Leon’s younger brother, also the narrator of this story Mother and Father of Leon and BaldoAurelia – Leon and Baldo’s younger sister Labang – the carabaoSetting Nagrebcan, Bauang La Union Plot Leon and Baldo waited for the arrival of Maria at the barrio. Maria was afraid that she will not be accepted by Leon’s father because she may not able to adapt their way of living in the province. Baldo was ignoring to his older brother’s question about why did they have to go to Waig instead of Camino Real. (The reason is that their father wanted to test Maria if she is worthy to be Leon’s wife.) Baldo discussed their travel to his father. Leon’s entire family talked to Maria. 1. Who among the characters in the story you appreciate most? Why? What trait/quality/characteristics you want to this character? Why? For my opinion, I think I appreciate Maria most. Because she accepted and respected Leon for what he really is. She didn’t care what Leon’s life back in Nagrebcan. She was a supportive and a loving wife to Leon. She was so endearing and kind-hearted lady. She was very keen to meet Leon’s family. The fact that the rural is different from the city can be somewhat discouraging but the closer hey get to the house, Maria still manages to overcome any trials.

Comparative Analysis between UAE and Germany

Comparative Analysis between UAE and Germany Introduction United Arab Emirates (UAE) is located in the Gulf of Oman coast in the Middle East. UAE is a member state of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). GCC is an economic cum political organization founded by Arabs countries that border the Persian Gulf.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Comparative Analysis between UAE and Germany specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to the 2012 GCC economic report, UAE was the second largest economy among the member states. The association further ranked UAE as the third largest economy in the Middle East. In the world ranking, UAE is rated as the 30th largest economy. UAE is said to be one of the fastest growing economy in the world. Tourism industry is the largest source of foreign exchange in the UAE. Export of natural gas and petroleum products plays a significant role in the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Plans are underway to diversify UAE’s e conomy beyond tourism, energy and service industry (International Monetary Fund 2013). Germany is located in the central region of Western Europe. Germany is among the 17 countries that constitute the European Union (EU) member states. Just like GCC, EU is a Europe regional organization that facilitates political and economic interest of the region (Thompson 2013, p. 228). According the international monetary fund (IMF), German economy is the largest national economy in the entire Europe. In addition, German nominal GDP ranked fourth in the world ranking after United States (US), China, and Japan. The country further ranked fifth in terms of the GDP purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2012 (International Monetary Fund 2013). Germany earns largest foreign exchange from exports. The exports include automobiles, chemicals, and machinery.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More H owever, the country imports a third of its power from other countries. German and UAE economies benefit largely from EU and GCC inter-regional trade. GCC and EU organizations have facilitated the trade by signed several economic agreements since (Braun 2012, p. 2005). Economic variables UAE and Germany economies can be well compared through macroeconomic variables and theories. Research asserts that macroeconomics provides the best analysis of country’s economy. Macroeconomics is best analyzed using the Output-Expenditure identity, Y=C+I+G+(X-M). Y is the GDP representing the total value of service and goods that a country produces annually. C is the consumer expenditure which represents the total value of services and goods customers buy annually. I represent the total business investment value. Finally, G represents the government spending. X represents the total export while M is the total value of imports annually. This is the annual purchases of all capital goods in a gi ven country. The Output-Expenditure identity leads to the circular flow of the economy. Y=C+I represent the fundamental economy of a country. The equation states that the total income of the country is equal to the total business investment and consumer spending (Dunn Mutti 2012, p. 85). Macroeconomics experts use the Output-Expenditure identity to explain economic variables. Economic variable is the statistical measure of the economic status. Therefore, there are three economic variables in the Output-Expenditure identity. The variables include Y (total output, or GDP), C (consumption), and I (investment). The fiscal economic policy defines GDP as the total purchases that government, businesses, and consumers of a country make within a year.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Comparative Analysis between UAE and Germany specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Secondly, the total consumption is a function of the citizen†™s disposable income. Income is the net personal income after the prevailing taxes. Therefore, government taxes influence the consumption rates in the economy. Finally, taxes are functions of the citizen’s income. Therefore, we can evaluate and compare economy of UAE and Germany based on the history of the total country income, consumption, investments, government and taxes. However, all these variables are usually involved in the calculation of the annual GDP growth rate and value. In summary, we can substantially analyze the economy of UAE and Germany by focusing on their annual GDP (Dunn Mutti 2012, p. 88). World development indicators (WPI) from 2003 to 2013 Germany Indicator 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 GNI/PPP $) 28120 29930 31470 34190 36150 37550 36500 38410 40190 41890 Population, total 82534176 82516260 82469422 82376451 82266372 82110097 81902307 81776930 81797673 81889839 GDP (current US$) 2.42381E+12 2.7263E+12 2.7663E+12 2.9027E+ 12 3.3238E+12 3.6237E+12 3.29864E+12 3.2845E+12 3.6008E+12 3.3996E+12 GDP growth (annual %) -0.37544394 1.16113261 0.68465566 3.7 3.26904532 1.08320105 -5.12702079 4.15774099 3.0288866 0.67144542 Life expectancy 78.3804878 78.6804878 78.9317073 79.1317073 79.5341463 79.7365854 79.83658537 79.9878049 80.7414634 _ Table 1 Germany WPI data (World Data Bank 2013). United Arab Emirates (UAE) Indicator Name 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 GNI per capita, PPP ($) 66140 68970 66620 64660 58380 51540 45050 41910 41980 _ Population, total 3369254 3658658 4148883 4875639 5797347 6798635 7718319 8441537 8925096 9205651 GDP (current US$) 1.2435E+11 1.4782E+11 1.8062E+11 2.2211E+11 2.5815E+11 3.1484E+11 2.70335E+11 2.87422E+11 3.4859E+11 _ GDP growth (annual %) 8.80054082 9.56643664 4.8551412 9.90619204 3.21324797 3.2946366 -1.60942968 1.81717227 3.87982931 4.36520899 Life expectancy at birth, (years) 75.1244878 75.3557317 75.5819512 75.800122 76.0112195 76.2 147561 76.41070732 76.59860976 76.781 _ Table 2 UAE WPI data (World Data Bank 2013). National Bureau of Statistics data Germany According to the German Federal statistical Office, GDP growth rate slightly improved in 2013. The office reported that GDP grew by 0.9 percent in the second quarter of 2013 compared to the same period in 2012. The federal annual report indicates that annual growth rate from 1992 to 2013 stands at 1.3 percent. The highest GDP growth rate was 5.2% in 2011, March.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On the other hand, the lowest GDP growth rate recorded was -6.8% in 2009, January. The growth is attributed to the contribution of various sectors that constitute the Germany economy (Trading economics 2013). Service sector is reported to contribute the highest income in the country at 18 percent. The most significant service industries include health, education, and public service. Accommodation, food industry, trade, hotels, and transport contributed 16 percent of the Germany’s GDP in the second quarter of 2013. Real estate industry and business contributed 11% and 10% respectively. Agriculture and other industries contribute the remaining 1% of the total GDP in the annual Germany income. Germany is the fourth largest national economy in the world. This prosperity is attributed to the large exports that Germany do annually. In that regard, exports contribute over 25% of the Germany’s national GDP annually. The following figure provides a graphical trend of the German y GDP growth rate. Figure 1 Germany GDP annual growth rate United Arab Emirates (UAE) National Bureau of Statistics, UAE reported a substantial GDP growth in 2012. The department reported a 4.4 percent GDP growth rate in 2012 compared to 2011. The Bureau articulated that average annual GDP growth rate of UAE was 4.6 percent from 2000 to 2012. The highest GDP growth was recorded in December 2006. On the other hand, the lowest GDP growth rate was -4.8 percent in 2009. The GDP growth rate in the past twelve years was as a result of improvement of various economic sectors. It is worth noting that the UAE GDP growth rate is fast. Very few countries register such growth and consistency in the national GDP growth rate. Figure 2 below shows the graphical representations of the UAE annual growth rate from 2003 to 2013. The Bureau asserts that the service industry contributes over 40 percent of the annual GDP. The most profitable segments in the service industry include: retail and wholesale trading (12 %); Business and real estate (9%); and warehousing, communication and transport (8%). Export of natural gas and oil contributes about 38% of UAE national income. 13% of the national GDP comes from distribution of gas, water, and electricity to the neighbouring countries. Manufacturing industry is said to contribute 8% of the annual GDP. The remaining 1% of the national GDP is contributed by agriculture and fishing industries (Trading economics 2013). Figure 2: UAE GDP annual growth rate Explanation of the economic data The International Monetary Fund (IMF) attributes the 2009 economic meltdown in the two countries to economic depression. IMF defines economic depression as the decline in economic growth in two consecutive financial quarters. IMF report indicates that aggregate demand (AD) represents Y in the Y=C+I+G+(X-M) equation. A fluctuation in any of these components results to the economic recession. Common causes of the recession include borrowing, less governmen t spending, and high taxes. This eventually reduces the disposable income hence fall in the real GDP. The adverse effect of AD fall results leads to the economic recession (International Monetary Fund 2013). In 2009, Europe experienced a severe economic recession. IMF asserts that the recession was caused by several economic constraints. Abrupt shortage of lending funds resulted to the credit crunch. Decline of the credit loans led to reduced credit availability and fall of housing prices. The fall was as a result of reduced mortgages and persistent credit crunch. In the beginning of 2009, the inflation rates escalated leading to decline disposable income in many EU countries. The condition resulted to loss of confidence to the financial sector across Europe. The confidence in the real economy led to the economic recession. The economic recession resulted to fall of international trade in Europe. This explains why there is GDP decline in both Germany and UAE in 2009 (International M onetary Fund 2013). Analysis Explanation of the economic variables The above tables show a detailed 10-year WPI data from the world data bank database. The table contains the annual GDP values, in dollars, from 2003 to 2012. The tables further provide the GDP growth rate in both countries by giving the percentage change from the previous year. This change is significant since it helps us evaluate the economic progress of both countries. In addition, the table provides the gross national income (GNI) of the two countries. Economic experts use the prevailing international dollar value to determine the GNI per PPP values of various countries for ranking purposes. Consequently, the GNI listed in terms of per capita PPP in dollars (EIU Country Analysis 2013). According to the 2011 World Bank GNI/PPP report, Germany ranked 16 while UAE ranked 15. This implies that UAE had higher income than Germany. GDP growth rate is the percentage change in the total production of a given country over a specified duration. The above WPI tabulations have included population details. Population growth rate is an important factor in the determination of the country’s GDP. The total population of the country is used in the calculation of the per capita income. In addition, the population is also used in the determination of the purchasing power parity and consumption rate. The more the population, the higher the consumption since every person in the population consumes goods and services daily (EIU Country Analysis 2013). From the table, it is clear that UAE population increased from 3,369,254 in 2003 to 9,205,651 in 2012. This translates to about 200% increase in population in a span of 10 years. Such high rate of population growth resulted to increased dependency ratio, increased pressure on social amenities and economic resource. Advantages of high population growth rate include increased local consumption, taxes, and investment. On the other hand, Germany population decline d from 82,534,176 in 2002 to 81,889,839 in 2013. This implies that Germany has experienced reduced population pressure (EIU Country Analysis 2013). Data analysis UAE economy is growing at very high rate. This paper earlier focused on how UAE’s population increased by over 300% in a decade. Despite high population growth rate, UAE recorded a GDP growth rate of 4.4% compared to 1.3% of Germany in 2013. On the other hand, German population declined over the same period. Economies argue that increased population is detrimental to the country’s economy. Therefore, it is expected that UAE GDP growth rate should decline following the effects of the increased population. Contrary, UAE GDP has a high growth rate for the last three years. This confirms the widespread speculation that UAE has the fastest growing economy in the world (EIU Country Analysis 2013). German GDP growth can be termed as stagnating. Given that the country is the fourth largest national economy for a while now, a better growth is expected. In addition, with fairly constant population for a decade, the GDP should be even better. However, Germany has recorded a slow growth of 0.9% in 2013 and 1.3% overall. Though this is economic growth, this is low for a country of such economic status. A slight decline in population should have improved the German GDP. Decline in population implies that German government had little spending on health and other social amenities. Furthermore, this means job opportunities of their citizens have been high. Decline in population means low population under the age of ten. Therefore, there is a low dependency ratio hence high disposable income among the citizens. Following these advantages, German should have a faster growth rate than now (EIU Country Analysis 2013). Comparative analysis Germany Germany GDP growth rate declined in 2009. This was as a result of the 2009 economic depression in Europe. Eurostat statistical office reported that poverty levels i n most part of Europe increased by approximately 2.5 percent from 2009 to 2011. This percentage translated to over 117 million citizens in Europe. The poverty level increase is associated with social transfers that took place during that period. Eurostat asserts that the most affected citizens were those earning a disposable income of less than 60%. The working group working for a total of less than 20% working hours were also subject to this condition (Braun 2012, p. 2020). Social transfer resulted to severe material deprivation. Eurostat defines material deprivation as the state of being unable to afford the four indispensable items in life. The four items include a car, daily balanced diet, rent, and a washing machine. The report reveals that the severely deprived people increased over 5% from 2009 to 2011. Severe deprivation leads to reduced purchasing power in the region. Germany Exports contributes over 25% of the annual National GDP. Therefore, social deprivation across Europ e must have affected the GDP from 2009 to 2011 as shown in the GDP growth rate graph in figure 1. Perhaps, Germany experienced reduced local consumption of the due to the same condition (Braun 2012, p. 2022). United Arab Emirates (UAE) UAE experienced fast GDP growth rate from 2003 to 2008. Earlier this paper stated that export of oil and natural gas contributes to 38% of the UAE’s annual GDP. Macroeconomic reports state that there was significant growth of the world prices of oil and natural gas from 2003 to 2008. This led to increment of UAE’s economy with over 145% to $261.4 billions. In addition, UAE embarked on economic diversification programs in the same period. Investment in other sectors like trade, real estate, transport and communication, and distribution of electricity and gas boosted UAE economy. This explains why UAE experienced the fastest GDP growth rate despite high population growth (EIU Country Analysis 2013). UAE GDP growth rate declined in 2009. Th is was mainly caused by the effects of the economic recession in 2009. Since UAE earned high GNI through export, global economic contraction in 2009 reduced the annual GDP in 2009. The economic recession led to reduced global prices of oil and natural gas. In addition, many EU countries that import energy products from UAE reduced their import quantities. This resulted to a sharp decline in the GDP growth rate. IMF reported that UAE annual GDP growth rate declined by 12% in 2009 alone. However, the growth rate improved in 2010 after economic recovery (International Monetary Fund 2013). From 2010 to present, UAE GDP growth rate has been on the rise. In 2010, UAE oil and natural gas exports gradually started increasing. This was due to the economic recovery in Europe following the severe 2009 recession. Through EU-GCC regional partnership, most EU economies increased their spending on natural oil and gas products. Furthermore, the international prices of oil and gas increased from 201 0. This resulted to increased UAE GDP growth rate at 1.8% (2010), 3.9% (2011), and 4.4% (2012). The 4.4% mark was the highest since 2006. Bureau statistics office reported that this was due to stable world oil prices. In addition, the office attributes the rise to the increased tourism and trade activities in Dubai, the state’s capital (EIU Country Analysis 2013). Trend Analysis Germany Despite slow GDP growth rate in the second quarter of 2013, the rate is predicted to continue growing. According to EIU, Germany US GDP is expected to hit 2.6% and 2.4% by 2014 and 2015 respectively. In addition, the OECD GDP is expected to increase from 1.1% to 2.2 by 2015. However, Eurostat postulates that there is a possibility of economic contraction by the end of this year. This might result to an increased number of severely deprived people in the European countries. As stated earlier, this might lead to reduced purchasing power of the region. Exports contribute the highest income in the Germany’s economy. Therefore, severe deprivation in Europe might result to reduced national GDP by the year 2015 (International Monetary Fund 2013). UAE The International Monetary Fund (IMF) postulates that UAE GDP might decline to 3.6% in 2013. However, the body reports that the growth is expected to grow to 3.7% (2014), 3.8% (2015), 3.5% (2016), 3.4% (2017), and 3.5% (2018). The report asserted that earning from both oil and non-oil sectors will grow significantly. However, the report noted higher growth in non-hydrocarbon sectors than in the oil sector. IMF attributed the growth forecast to increased government spending and foreign capital inflow. In addition, UAE is perceived as the safest country in the warring Middle East countries (International Monetary Fund 2013). UAE government is committed to maintaining fast GDP growth rate. Consequently, the government is currently under intensive economic diversification programs to supplement energy. UAE government has rolled out a $ 90 billion 5-year projects to construct a new city. This city will host about 100 international hotels and the world’s largest shopping mall. The city will be the best tourist destination in the world. In addition, Dubai has one of the largest airports in the world. Its strategic locations have and will continue attracting most international stopover for flights. The government is planning to take advantage of the airport to establish the world trading centre in its capital. At this rate, UAE will soon be one of the largest national economies in the world (International Monetary Fund 2013). References Braun, H 2012, German Economy in the Twentieth Century, Routledge, London. Dunn, M Mutti, J 2012, International Economics, Routledge, London. EIU Country Analysis 2013, Country Report Germany 21 Oct 2013. Web. EIU Country Analysis 2013, Country Report UAE 21 Oct 2013. Web. International Monetary Fund 2013, Germany 2013 Article IV consultation, International Monetary Fun d, Washington, D.C. International Monetary Fund 2013, United Arab Emirates 2013 Article IV consultation, International Monetary Fund, Washington, D.C. Thompson, W 2013, Western Europe 2013 (32nd ed.), Stryker-Post Publications, Lanham, Maryland. Trading economics 2013, Annual GDP growth rate. Web. World Data Bank 2013, World development indicators. Web.